The Story Behind Luxembourg’s Three National Languages

Moien. Bonjour. Guten Tag.

In most countries, choosing which language to use is fairly straightforward.

In Luxembourg, it can depend on where you are, who you are talking to, what you are talking about — and sometimes even which side of the conversation you are on.

A conversation might begin in Luxembourgish, move into French, include a sentence in German and finish with a little English thrown in for good measure.

For visitors, it can seem extraordinary.

For people who live here, it is simply Luxembourg.

The Grand Duchy has developed a linguistic system unlike almost anywhere else in Europe. Luxembourgish, French and German all have official roles, while English, Portuguese, Italian and many other languages are also widely heard.

But this didn’t happen by accident.

The three-language Luxembourg of today is the result of centuries of geography, politics, migration, education, war and national identity.

And the story of those languages is really the story of Luxembourg itself.

Luxembourg sits between linguistic worlds

Look at a map of Luxembourg and one of the reasons for its linguistic diversity becomes immediately obvious.

The country sits between the German-speaking world to the east and the French-speaking world to the west.

Historically, Luxembourg was part of a much larger cultural and political landscape in which borders were constantly changing.

Its own name provides an early clue.

The name Luxembourg comes from Lucilinburhuc, generally understood as meaning something like “little castle”, a Germanic name associated with the fortress established by Count Siegfried in the 10th century.

The language that eventually became Luxembourgish developed within this Germanic linguistic environment.

But Luxembourg was never isolated from its French-speaking neighbours.

Over the centuries, French became increasingly important in government, law, administration and among sections of the country’s educated and wealthy population.

And that created the foundations of the extraordinary linguistic division we see today.

So, what actually is Luxembourgish?

Luxembourgish — Lëtzebuergesch — is a West Central German language belonging to the Moselle Franconian group.

It is closely related to dialects spoken in parts of Germany and the surrounding region.

But it isn’t simply “German with a Luxembourgish accent”.

Over centuries, Luxembourgish absorbed substantial influences from French and developed its own vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and written standard.

That mixture is one of the things that makes the language so distinctive.

You can even hear the linguistic history of Luxembourg in everyday expressions.

For example, Luxembourgish speakers can use “Äddi”, related to German Ade, or “Awuer”, influenced by the French au revoir. French words such as Salut are also perfectly familiar in everyday Luxembourg.

It is a language that reflects the country around it.

Germanic at its foundations.

French influences woven through it.

And distinctly Luxembourgish in its modern form.

For centuries, Luxembourgish wasn’t the language of power

This is one of the most interesting parts of the story.

For much of Luxembourg’s history, Luxembourgish was primarily a spoken language.

It was the language of ordinary everyday communication, while French and German were more strongly associated with education, administration, religion, literature and social status.

Until the 19th century, the upper classes, clergy and bourgeoisie commonly used French or German, while Luxembourgish was largely the language spoken by the wider population.

This created an unusual linguistic hierarchy.

You could essentially speak one language at home and another when dealing with official or professional life.

That distinction would gradually disappear as Luxembourg developed a stronger sense of national identity.

French arrives as the language of administration

French gained enormous importance in Luxembourg during periods of French influence and occupation.

In 1684, Luxembourg was occupied by the forces of Louis XIV, and French became increasingly important in administration.

French influence became even stronger during the French Revolutionary period.

When Napoleon’s legal system and the Napoleonic Code were introduced, French became dominant in legal matters.

And this helped establish something that still exists today.

Even though Luxembourgish is the country’s national language, French remains the principal language of legislation.

Under Luxembourg’s 1984 Language Law, laws and regulations are drafted in French, and where translations exist, the French text is authoritative.

So if you ever wondered why Luxembourgish isn’t normally the language in which Luxembourg’s laws are written, the answer goes back a long way.

Then came the 19th century — and things became even more complicated

The 19th century was a crucial period in the development of modern Luxembourg.

Following the Belgian Revolution, Luxembourg was divided in 1839.

The western part became part of Belgium, while the eastern part remained the independent Grand Duchy.

Then, in 1842, Luxembourg joined the Zollverein, the German customs union.

That brought Luxembourg closer economically to the German-speaking world.

German capital and companies entered the country, German workers arrived, and German became particularly important in economic life.

At the same time, French remained extremely important in administration and law.

And Luxembourgish continued to be the language of everyday life for much of the population.

The three-way linguistic system was beginning to take shape.

Education helped create Luxembourg’s multilingual identity

One of the most important developments came in 1843.

A law on primary education established the teaching of both German and French.

The two languages were taught on an equal footing, helping to create a population that was increasingly comfortable moving between the Germanic and Romance linguistic worlds.

This was more than an education policy.

It helped create a distinctly Luxembourgish approach to language.

Rather than choosing between German and French, Luxembourg increasingly became a country that used both.

And Luxembourgish was simultaneously developing as an important expression of national identity.

Luxembourgish becomes a symbol of being Luxembourgish

During the 19th century, Luxembourgish began to experience something of a cultural renaissance.

Writers began producing poetry, songs and stories in the language.

One of the most important figures was Michel Lentz, whose poem Ons Heemecht — “Our Homeland” — became the basis of Luxembourg’s national anthem.

This was hugely significant.

Luxembourgish was no longer simply the language people spoke at home.

It was increasingly becoming a language through which Luxembourgers expressed who they were.

That distinction would become even more important during the 20th century.

The Second World War changed everything

Perhaps no event had a greater impact on Luxembourg’s linguistic identity than the German occupation from 1940 to 1944.

The occupying authorities attempted to suppress Luxembourg’s distinct national identity and incorporate the country into Nazi Germany.

French was banned, while Luxembourgish was deliberately downgraded and treated as merely a dialect in an attempt to undermine Luxembourg’s separate identity.

But something unexpected happened.

In a 1941 census organised by the German authorities, the population was asked questions about nationality and language.

Rather than embracing German identity, an overwhelming majority of Luxembourgers identified Luxembourgish as their mother tongue.

The language had become a powerful expression of national identity.

The attempt to Germanise Luxembourg arguably strengthened the emotional connection between Luxembourgish and Luxembourg itself.

1984: Luxembourgish becomes the national language

It took until 1984 for Luxembourgish to receive its modern legal status.

The Language Law of 24 February 1984 declared:

“The national language of Luxembourgers is Luxembourgish.”

At the same time, the law established the practical roles of the three languages.

French, German and Luxembourgish could all be used in administrative and judicial matters, while legislation itself would be written in French.

This distinction is important.

Luxembourg doesn’t simply have three languages that are interchangeable in every situation.

Each has historically developed a particular role.

So what language is used for what?

This is where Luxembourg’s system gets fascinating.

🇱🇺 Luxembourgish

Luxembourgish is the national language and is particularly important in everyday spoken communication, national identity, political life and social interaction.

It is also widely used in Luxembourg’s radio and television broadcasting.

🇫🇷 French

French has traditionally been particularly important in administration, law, commerce, hospitality and services.

It is extremely common in shops, restaurants and workplaces.

French is also the language in which Luxembourg’s legislation is officially drafted.

🇩🇪 German

German has traditionally played an important role in education, literacy and the written press.

Historically, much of Luxembourg’s newspaper publishing developed in German, and German remains an important language in the country’s media landscape.

And then there is…

🇬🇧 English

English isn’t one of Luxembourg’s three official languages, but you might be forgiven for thinking it was.

It has become extremely important in international business, finance, European institutions and the country’s enormous expatriate community.

Luxembourg’s linguistic landscape today therefore goes well beyond the traditional three.

The country became even more multilingual

There is another reason Luxembourg’s linguistic situation has changed dramatically in recent decades.

Immigration.

Almost half of Luxembourg’s population consists of foreign residents, and the country has attracted people from across Europe and around the world.

Portuguese is particularly prominent, while Italian, English and numerous other languages are also widely spoken.

This means that the Luxembourg of today is arguably more multilingual than ever.

A person living in Luxembourg might use:

Luxembourgish at home.
French at the supermarket.
German when reading something.
English at work.
Portuguese with a neighbour.

And nobody thinks this is particularly strange.

It is simply Luxembourg.

The remarkable art of switching languages

One of the most fascinating aspects of Luxembourg’s linguistic culture is code-switching — changing between languages depending on the situation.

You might start a conversation in Luxembourgish.

Someone replies in French.

A German expression appears.

Then someone switches into English because another person has joined the conversation.

In many countries, switching languages in the middle of a conversation would be unusual.

In Luxembourg, it can be completely natural.

The language used isn’t necessarily determined by someone’s nationality.

It can depend on their age, profession, background, education, relationship with the person they’re talking to — or simply what language feels most natural at that moment.

Is Luxembourgish under threat?

This is one of the more complicated questions facing modern Luxembourg.

The country’s international population has grown enormously, while French and English are particularly important in many workplaces.

The Luxembourg Government notes that Luxembourgish is currently classified by UNESCO’s World Atlas of Languages as potentially endangered, largely because of the country’s multilingual environment and differing language use across economic sectors.

But that doesn’t mean Luxembourgish is disappearing.

Far from it.

The language continues to evolve.

It is used in politics, schools, radio, television, social media and everyday conversations.

Young Luxembourgers are also creating new expressions and incorporating influences from the other languages they encounter.

The language is changing — as all living languages do.

Luxembourgish finally enters the Constitution

There has been another important development very recently.

In 2023, Luxembourgish received explicit constitutional recognition.

Article 4 of the revised Constitution states that:

“The language of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is Luxembourgish.”

It also states that the use of Luxembourgish, French and German is governed by law.

It was a symbolic moment.

Nearly 40 years after the 1984 Language Law formally established Luxembourgish as the national language, the language was now written directly into the country’s Constitution.

Three languages — but one Luxembourg

There is sometimes a temptation to describe Luxembourg’s linguistic system as complicated.

It is.

But perhaps “complicated” isn’t quite the right word.

It is better described as layered.

German reflects Luxembourg’s historical and geographical connections with the Germanic world.

French reflects centuries of political, cultural, legal and economic influence from the French-speaking world.

Luxembourgish represents the country’s own linguistic development and, increasingly, its national identity.

None of the three tells the whole story by itself.

Together, they tell the story of Luxembourg.

A country that learned to live between languages

Perhaps that is the real secret behind Luxembourg’s multilingualism.

The country never had to completely choose between its linguistic neighbours.

Instead, it developed a way of living between them.

It borrowed.

It adapted.

It translated.

It switched.

And eventually it turned that linguistic complexity into part of its identity.

Today, Luxembourg can be a country where a law is written in French, a newspaper is read in German, a political debate takes place in Luxembourgish and a business meeting happens in English — sometimes all on the same day.

That isn’t a contradiction.

It is Luxembourg.

And perhaps the most remarkable thing about the country’s three-language story is that the languages don’t simply describe Luxembourg’s history.

They are Luxembourg’s history — spoken out loud.